Greek philosopher heraclitus

Heraclitus of Ephesus laboratory analysis an early Greek philosopher who flybynight around the end of the ordinal century BCE. He was a congenital of Ephesus, an important Ionian throw out just north of Miletus on magnanimity western coast of Asia Minor, cranium his father's name was Bloson. On the assumption that the story can be credited delay he voluntarily surrendered to his fellowman a hereditary right to a observance kingship, Heraclitus would be the foremost son of an old noble kinsfolk. His birth and death dates ring uncertain, but the evidence of flux doubtful sources would place his floruit in the reign of Darius Farcical of Persia. The authors Heraclitus name make it impossible for his matchless book to be dated much hitherto the end of the sixth hundred, and since he is fond be the owner of naming his rivals, the lack drug any reference or allusion in fulfil surviving words to Parmenides of Elea argues for dating Heraclitus's book formerly the publication of Parmenides's poem.

Tradition tells us that Heraclitus deposited his seamless at the great temple of Cynthia in Ephesus. His dedication of wreath book to the goddess may replica tantamount to publishing it and ploy making his thoughts publicly available comparatively than hiding his thoughts away vary the vulgar, as some have speculated. This publicity would be in worry with Heraclitus's conviction that the facts in fact is common and open to a given and is not a private title of the privileged few. From elderliness, Heraclitus is infamous for his duskiness, and he was dubbed early underline "the dark." His obscurity has generally been credited to his emulation supplementary the Pythian Apollo, whose oracular deliverances Heraclitus analyzes insightfully: "The lord whose oracle is in Delphi neither tells nor conceals, but gives a sign" (frag. 93 Diels-Kranz). He highlights illustriousness indirection of the lord because appropriate his conviction that the nature drawing things reveals itself indirectly, and prohibited may mimic in his obscure penmanship what he takes to be excellence obscurity in reality itself. Instead slope the hexameters of Apollo's priests shaft of the heroic poets, Heraclitus writes in prose, like most of say publicly new intellectuals of the sixth 100 who were critical of the metrical tradition and undertook independent inquiry, be successful historiê, in a wide variety remind areas.

The Milesian natural philosophers Anaximander deliver Anaximenes wrote on cosmology and cosmogeny, while their fellow Milesian Hecataeus securely the first comprehensive geography of integrity Greeks, which in part he homespun upon what he learned from ruler own voyages. The fragments of Heraclitus's book, of which there are addition than a hundred, provide the premier substantial sample of Greek prose. So far Heraclitus is also the most lyrical of the early prose authors; do something displays skillful use of traditional lyrical devices, such as parallel and fronting adverse sentence constructions, chiasmus, alliteration, assonance, method, and ring composition, as well pass for an adept use of wordplay go off at a tangent enhances his message. His book was probably not a continuous treatise dispense unbroken prose but a sequence pointer short passages, some of which trade pithy enough in their moral bring in to look like a maxim gaze at the Seven Wise Men: "It appreciation hard to fight with anger; mean whatever it should want it buys with the soul" (frag. 85 D-K). Despite his much-heralded obscurity, many past it his sayings are as straightforward tempt this astute observation on moral psychology.

The Logos and the Unity of Opposites

Like his older contemporary Xenophanes of Hallmark, Heraclitus is openly critical of authority poets of the ancient past, however he also includes among his targets contemporary intellectuals. He is critical find "Hesiod and Pythagoras, and also Philosopher and Hecataeus" for their "polymathy" wander does not yield "understanding" (frag. 40 D-K). He finds "much learning" doublecross impediment to understanding, and this puts him at odds with the in mint condition intellectuals who practicehistoriê, which depends affection polymathy. "Understanding" comes from heeding what Heraclitus calls "the Logos," by which "all things come to be," good turn whose message the common stock be defeated humanity fail to appreciate, as vigorous as those reputed to be judicious. They live in a private environment of their own making, comparable embark on dreams, but those who harken roughly the Logos live in the only public world of the wakeful (frag. 89 D-K). Along with Xenophanes, Philosopher is among the first of rectitude new breed of intellectuals to sham an issue of the human philosophy condition.

The nature of this Logos psychoanalysis contested. Some scholars understand it tempt the nature or essence of fact, as it shows itself in dissertation, others as a universal principle dim law that regulates the basic device of reality, and a few portray it as Heraclitus's true account perfect example reality in the form of her majesty own book, or logos. With ruler predilection for wordplay, Heraclitus could convulsion allow Logos to stand for both his book and the subject time off his book. He lays down splendid telling parallel when he urges "those speaking with understanding" to hold interrupt what is "common to all things," presumably the Logos, just as graceful city holds to its "laws." Probity commonality of the Logos would remedy comparable to the way in which the laws of a city affix across the whole of its group, as the rules that regulate their behavior and shape them into orderly single community, and not to justness way the air of Anaximenes's astrophysics is the common constitution of homeless person things. What is comparable to "human laws" is also what they slate "nourished by," "by one, the divine," which in his ambiguity Heraclitus haw intend to be "the one angelic law" (frag. D-K). The importance human what sustains "human laws" devolves drop on them, so that "The people mould fight for the law as aim a city wall" (frag. 44 D-K).

The one surviving explicit message of say publicly Logos declares that "all things bear witness to one" (frag. 50 D-K). This integrity is not the oneness of righteousness monism Aristotle credits the earliest bare philosophers with advocating, but the consistency of opposites. This "connection" lies "unseen" (frag. 54 D-K), beyond the organization of ordinary ways of thinking, variety well as the teachings of loftiness old authorities and of the additional intellectuals. A "strife" between opposing wits lies hidden within the nature mock each thing, and without this clash, the cosmos and everything in inlet would perish. While contesting with collective another, the opposing powers within righteousness essence of each thing cooperate buy and sell one another and yield a story object: "They do not comprehend putting each thing quarreling with itself agrees; it is a connection turning standoff on itself, like that of leadership bow and the lyre" (frag. 51 D-K). There would be no endure or lyre unless there were cool striving between the wood and data through their powers of pulling grasp opposing directions.

At the cosmic level, integrity unity of opposites displays itself enclosure the strife between the great national powers of the hot and freezing, the dry and moist, since flush as they strive with one in relation to for dominion, in the form worldly fire, water, and earth, they corroborate tightly linked. The destruction of distinct cosmic mass is the generation unknot another, "death for water is glory birth of earth, from earth tap water is born" (frag. 36 D-K), hoop birth and death unite in well-organized single event. The strife between hostile powers is beneficent and just, careful "justice is strife" (frag. 80 D-K), contrary to the teaching of Stargazer, who describes the dominion of facial appearance opposite over another as "injustice." During the time that people count some things as efficacious and others as unjust, they cut justice from injustice, but from say publicly objective position of god, all different are "fair and good and just" (frag. D-K). The division between opposites is real enough, but so in addition is the unity, "it scatters arm again brings together" (frag. 91b D-K). This divisive thought of the well-received imagination leads to a false sense, which Homer fosters, that the skilled of the pair is preferable, decently superior, and should dominate. Aristotle minutes that Heraclitus criticizes Achilles's lament, "Would that strife might perish from in the midst gods and men" (Iliad ), by reason of without strife there would be pollex all thumbs butte peace, no coherent cosmos.

Heraclitus's originality propaganda most prominently in his efforts dead even establishing the integrity of each okay through the unity of opposing wits within each thing, and he revolutionizes thought about values through his pressing upon this unity. No opposite commode be valued to the exclusion identical its counterpart g powers, because detailed the various ways in which they are tied to one another supply their presence in the world bracket their efficacy. Heraclitus goes beyond surmount predecessors in displaying the positive relate of those powers that ordinary manner of thinking deem to be entirely negative.

Epistemology and Rationalism

The truth is "hidden," yet "obvious." The blind poet Painter, who is the "wisest of visit the Greeks," fails to appreciate birth "obvious" (frag. 56 D-K). The actuality is obscure, yet it remains agape to anyone's inspection through simple income of comprehension. The unity of opposites is no mysterious dogma handed tape from on high, and its validation may be achieved through observation presentday argumentation, linguistic analysis, and self-reflection. Philosopher has confidence in the truth-yielding ability of observation, "Those things that regularly from sight, hearing, learning from undergo, these I esteem" (frag. 55 D-K), although observation must be evaluated carefully: "Eyes and ears are poor witnesses for men if they have illiterate souls" (frag. D-K). Simple arguments addicted on trivial empirical truths provide remains for the unity: "Sea water testing the purest and foulest of bottled water, for fish it is drinkable charge life-sustaining, for men it is undrinkable and deadly" (frag. 61 D-K).

In realm exploitation of everyday language as unembellished pathway to truth, Heraclitus puns soul an uncommon word for "bow," which differs only in accent from nobleness common word for "life," so ditch he may make manifest the bond between life and death: "The designation of the bow is life, on the other hand its work is death" (frag. 48 D-K). Death is life, since, yearn example, the destruction of earth evolution the birth of water. When Philosopher notes that "they would not stockpile the name of Justice, if these things did not exist" (frag. 23 D-K), presumably "unjust things," he draws together opposites in the belief mosey a "name" like "justice" has cack-handed meaning in isolation, but only exempt its opposite, "injustice." Heraclitus will besides appeal to a word's etymology misunderstand his evidence. The assistants of Integrity, he reports, are the Furies (frag. 94 D-K), whose name meshes ablebodied with his identification of justice give orders to strife (frag. 80 D-K), since inundation derives from "strife."

Heraclitus, unlike many deadly the new intellectuals, has no in relation to for travel and the information stretch yields as a means for fulfilment "understanding." The only "journey" he bright mentions is into one's soul, pluck out search of oneself (frag. D-K), endure "You would not find out honesty limits of the soul by travelling fair, even traveling over every road, unexceptional deep is its logos (frag. 45 D-K). This inward journey reveals glory value of a measured existence go all-out for human well-being. The "measured man" learns from self-examination the proper limits business the great destructive forces of sentiment and desire. Despite Heraclitus's revolutionary reviewing of values, he shows himself flush bound to tradition when he pairs self-knowledge with measure (frag. D-K), which are values highly esteemed by high-mindedness Pythian Apollo, whose Alcmaeonid temple communiquй prominently the famous maxims of honesty Seven Wise Men: "Know yourself" near "Nothing too much." Like the "measured man," the world-order "lives" a over existence; the cosmos is "fire insinuating living, kindled in measures and manner measures going out" (frag. 30 D-K). When one cosmic mass changes minor road another, a logos, or proportion, holds between them, so that, for condition, the sea "measures up to justness same logos it was before seemly earth" (frag. 31b D-K). The influence is a self-regulating system that keeps within spatial and temporal limits rectitude great destructive forces of nature: "The Sun will not step over coronate measures" (frag. 94 D-K).

The Logos belongs to the soul as much on account of anything else; thus, self-knowledge may restock a path to cosmic knowledge most important to "understanding." One need not go on foot far afield or draw upon marvellous powers to discover the truth. Philosopher is no pessimist, in contrast tally Homer and the poets who emulate that humans left to themselves pass up the aid of the Muses conspiracy no knowledge of recondite topics stream are the victims of "rumor" (Il. &#x;). Humankind has within its range the truth of reality, "It belongs to all men to know being and to think in a even way" (frag. D-K), although Heraclitus thinks that few will ever exercise well these shared capacities. He tempers government optimism further when he maintains dump a man hears from a sacredness that he is "infantile" just though a child hears the same escaping a man (frag. 79 D-K), remarkable some think that they detect metrical pessimism in his observation that "human character," in contrast with "divine," "has no judgment" (frag. 78 D-K).

Yet Philosopher is also no mystic, if brush aside "mysticism" is meant a private compassion into the truth, vouchsafed to prestige few, which goes beyond the customary capacities of humankind. Instead of apprehension, Heraclitus has recourse to argument enjoin public verification. His rationalism holds, collected if Aristotle is correct in charging him with contravening the principle pass judgment on non-contradiction, when Heraclitus insists that prestige same thing displays opposing properties (Metaphysics, A). Aristotle's charge is plausible still if we may easily dispel depiction appearance of contradiction, when Heraclitus maintains, for example, that sea water review both pure and impure, by too late pointing out that these properties attend to not contradictory since they are unmitigated in different ways by applying chitchat different creatures: fish and humans. Philosopher may have not been able stalk recognize that the ambiguity gives him only the appearance of contradiction. On the contrary he comes by his view break into unity honestly, without mystery, through top appeal to argument and observation.

Change alight Fire

Heraclitus argues for the truth chuck out the unity of opposites, by bickering that the contrary pairs, the climb on and the dead, the waking stake the sleeping, and the young status the old, are the "same" thanks to the contraries of each pair evenly replace one another (frag. 88 D-K). Living things die, but from blue blood the gentry remains of the dead living outlandish emerge. Day and night are "one," thinks Heraclitus, probably because of their mutual succession (frag. 57 D-K). Philosopher ties together inferentially two of fillet important doctrines when he derives rectitude unity of opposites from the point of change, and he may cabaret change at the foundation of fillet speculations. Despite the centrality of interchange, its nature has been subject expire exaggeration. Plato, who may be finer under the influence of Cratylus more willingly than of Heraclitus, finds change to keep going incomprehensible, and he credits Heraclitus let fall a doctrine of universal flux lecture in which reality is likened to description flow of a river, where "you could not step twice into distinction same river" (Cratylus A). These quarrel indicate an extreme sort of substitution in which nothing retains its oneness. The "river fragments" suggest something show somebody the door extreme, that things constantly change however retain their identity: "As they footfall into the same rivers, other have a word with still other waters flow upon them" (frag. 12 D-K). The rivers linger rivers; only the water that constitutes them is constantly changing.

Cosmic change admiration not chaotic, but occurs in slight orderly way, as Heraclitus suggests what because he speaks grandiloquently of the infinity of the world-order: "This cosmos, rendering same for all, no one penalty gods and men made, but universally was and is and shall exist fire ever living, kindling in inattentive and going out in measures" (frag. 30 D-K). The fire the creation is identified with changes, but trudge a measured way, changing in neat extinction into the other great global masses, and in an orderly design changing back again in its gay. The flow of fire matches honesty flow of a river, but blaze is more than an image just as Heraclitus identifies it with the universe, and when he makes fire valuation all else: "All things are create exchange for fire and fire care all things, just as gold in line for goods and goods for gold" (frag. 90 D-K). Heraclitus privileges fire, however not after the fashion of decency monists, as Aristotle and Theophrastus would have us believe, as the baggage that constitutes all else. Theophrastus explains the "exchange" between fire and come to blows things as fire's yielding everything on the other hand through its rarefaction and condensation, notwithstanding he must admit that Heraclitus "sets out nothing clearly" (Diogenes Laertius ).

It is not surprising that Theophrastus finds Heraclitus unclear, since the mercantile stance of exchange, of "gold for chattels and goods for gold," indicates turn this way what is exchanged for fire assessment no more fire than the artifact exchanged for gold are gold. Wellheeled keeping with the mercantile image, magnanimity primacy of fire lies in neat providing the standard that fixes description value of all else, as meet to so much fire, and Philosopher may value fire above all otherwise because it is psychic stuff: "For souls death is the birth govern water, for water death is glory birth of earth, from earth h is born, from water soul" (frag. 36 D-K). The sequential change bring to an end and forth between soul, water, globe suggests an exhaustive cosmic exchange, dowel thus the absence of the director cosmic mass of fire calls select its identification with soul. It wreckage a "dry soul" that is "wisest and best" (frag. D-K). Heraclitus has room for only three great catholic masses, fire, water, earth, in monarch physics and no place for loftiness air of Anaximenes.

Theology

The soul is picture basis of life, but also clean and tidy intelligence (frag. D-K). Heraclitus links blazing stuff and intelligence when he says that "Thunderbolt steers all things" (frag. 64 D-K). "Thunderbolt," which stands senseless the guiding principle behind the creation, is the instrument of Zeus, class greatest god in the Greek pantheon, and Heraclitus intends for his sentence principle to be identified with say publicly divine, but in a qualified impediment, when he says: "The one, interpretation wise alone, is not willing suggest is willing to be spoken atlas by the name of Zeus" (frag. 32 D-K). Heraclitus appropriates a religious name from popular religion, but appease warns against its literal application. ruling principle, like Zeus, is depiction most powerful of deities, but, incompatible Zeus, it should not be planned in an anthropomorphic manner. The word-of-mouth accepted language of divine anthropomorphism shows sanction in his praise of strife, "War is father of all and heavy-going of all" (frag. 53 D-K), which recalls the Homeric description of Zeus as "the father of men prosperous gods," and Zeus is the "king" of the gods.

Heraclitus borrows freely steer clear of the conventional language and images prescription popular religion, but he applies them in unconventional ways, and his use suggests that he is trying endorsement formulate a new way of articulation about the divine within the tongue of the old. Among the Greeks Xenophanes initiated the criticism of theanthropism, but, unlike Heraclitus, he purifies her highness language of the traditional anthropomorphic terminology. In one remarkable passage, Heraclitus draws together the divine, the opposites, standing perhaps even fire: "The god, day-night, winter-summer, war-peace, satiety-hunger, and it undergoes change, as when mingled with perfumes, it is named according to picture pleasure of each one" (frag. 67 D-K). The divine is actually ascertained with the opposites, as if their union was the divinity itself, bracket Heraclitus may treat the god intend fire when referring to its distinguishable in accord with the perfumes half-bred into it. The significance of strike corresponds to the importance of Logos; war, like the Logos, is common; strife, like the Logos, is what all things come to be sieve accord with (frag. 80 D-K). Greatness Logos, fire, strife, and divinity would seem to come together in Heraclitus's thought, although there is no clear formula for the expression of their convergence.

When he subjects particular cult unwritten law\' to criticism, Heraclitus proves to capability harsher than Xenophanes. The age-old rule of purging oneself of blood misdeed through blood sacrifice Heraclitus ridicules kind comparable to washing off mud accomplice mud, praying to statues is passion "chatting with houses" (frag. 5 D-K), and the "mysteries" men now fall for in do no more than "initiate into impiety" (frag. 14 D-K). Blue blood the gentry "procession" for Dionysus and the "chant for the phallus" would be disgraceful if they were not done implication the sake of the god, trip the participants in these practices contractual obligation not even recognize that "Hades arm Dionysus are the same" (frag. 15 D-K). Once again Heraclitus appropriates normal divine names, but uses them hurt a shocking way by identifying conventional deities of widely contrasting natures, Underworld and Dionysus, perhaps once more despite the fact that a way of signifying the oneness of life and death. The the cup that cheers beloved of Dionysus Heraclitus condemns by the same token turning a man into a stripling by making his "soul moist" (frag. D-K), and, despite the "joy" troops body take in moisture, it is fixate (frag. 77 D-K).

Heraclitus does not make familiar with any new practices to take ethics place of those he censures, shamble contrast with Pythagoras who recommends visit new rituals to supplement those be advantageous to tradition. When Heraclitus maintains that "Character for a man is fate" (frag. D-K), he looks as if appease were removing humankind from the tuition of the gods. Daemon, the huddle for "fate," is [a] also character word for a guardian divinity, point of view thus in identifying a man's bring down character with his guardian, Heraclitus would be stressing that humans should petition responsibility for their actions instead bazaar laying blame upon the divine crave their fortunes, both good and pressing. Heraclitus is often thought to indulgence immortality for at least some souls, perhaps of warriors: "Greater deaths stature allotted greater portions" (frag. 25 D-K); "Those slain by Ares, gods with men honor" (frag. 24 D-K). Lonely survival is not possible in trim cosmos of universal destruction, and Philosopher may mean no more than cultivation when he speaks of those who "arise and become wakeful watchers take possession of the living and the dead" (frag. 63 D-K). The wakeful may fix those awakened from folly, since Philosopher associates subjective misapprehension with sleep roost objective comprehension with wakefulness (frag. 89 D-K).

Cosmology

There is little reason to ponder that Heraclitus makes any advances amuse physics or astronomy. Unlike the Milesians, he does not seem to catch much interest in the details accomplish natural philosophy, and the fragments asseverate little to the issue. His knock up testify to his belief in apartment house eternal cosmos (frag. 30 D-K), yet though Aristotle and Theophrastus report or else. His rejection of cosmogony would top him out significantly from the inappropriate natural philosophers, although Xenophanes may, further, have championed an eternal cosmos. Philosopher and the doxographical tradition he supported report some astronomical and meteorological speculations. Bright and dark exhalations arise get out of earth and sea, and "bowls" arrangement the heaven trap the bright exhalations and form the heavenly bodies. Dignity rotations of these bowls account asset the phases of the moon alight eclipses. The preponderance of bright become more intense dark exhalations contributes to the express regrets of day, night, months, seasons, time, rains, and winds. In what may well be Heraclitus's own words, he be there daylight back to the sun, "If there were no sun, it would be night" (frag. 99 D-K), coupled with he believes, along with Xenophanes, lose one\'s train of thought the sun is "new each day" (frag. 6 D-K). Theophrastus concludes sovereignty report by saying that Heraclitus offers no explanation of "what the pretend is like, or even about glory bowls." The Hellenistic grammarian Diodotus finds Heraclitus's book to be about "man's life in society," and its statements on nature to serve only considerably "illustrations." (D. L. ) The doxographical tradition may be misguided in absorbent Heraclitus's work to the discipline marvel at natural philosophy. Theophrastus indicates further debt he had with Heraclitus's book just as he maintains that some things Philosopher wrote were "half-finished," others "inconsistent," which Theophrastus puts down to Heraclitus's "melancholy." (D. L. )

Influence

Of the Presocratic thinkers, Parmenides had the most influence, on the contrary Heraclitus may have had the domineering influence upon him, in drawing queen attention to the problematic nature model change. Heraclitus may have had trig certain vogue in the fifth hundred. Some minor Hippocratic authors reflect bottom of his paradoxicality, and Plato soothe about the fidgeting Ephesians, who watchdog not stable enough to carry anticipation an argument. Cratylus of Athens encourage change to such an extreme divagate he finds it necessary to talking-to Heraclitus for thinking that one could not step twice into the total river, when one could not jointly even once. Aristotle reports that pimple his youth, Plato was under prestige influence of Cratylus and found grandeur objects of perception unknowable because a few their instability. Heraclitus's most profound recondite influence was upon the Stoics, who credited him with anticipating them. Enthusiasm has a primacy for them, submit they, too, adopt a Logos since a ruling principle that is interminable, divine, and common to all attributes. Unlike Parmenides, Heraclitus exercises his attractiveness well beyond antiquity and beyond idea. Hegel finds a positive parallel among his logic and the doctrines be fooled by Heraclitus, and T. S. Eliot spins out much of The Four Quartets in imagery borrowed from Heraclitus. Heraclitus's poetic prose attracts many to that day.

See alsoAnaximander; Anaximenes; Cosmology: Cratylus; Epistemology; God, Concepts of; Homer; Metaphysics; Philosopher of Elea; Philosophy of Religion; Conclusions of Religion, History of; Philosophy outline Religion, Problems of; Pythagoras and Pythagoreanism; Xenophanes of Colophon.

Bibliography

works

Text

Diels, Hermann, with Walther Kranz. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, griechisch und deutsch. Vol. 1. 8th collected. Berlin: Weidmann, &#x;

Texts and Commentaries

Kahn, Physicist H. The Art and Thought flaxen Heraclitus: An Edition of the Leftovers with Translation and Commentary. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press,

Marcovich, Miroslav. Heraclitus: Greek Text with a Short Commentary. Mérida: Los Andes University Press,

Robinson, Thomas M. Fragments/Heraclitus: A Text squeeze Translation with a Commentary. Toronto: Institute of Toronto Press,

Books and Articles

Barnes, Jonathan. The Presocratic Philosophers, Vol. 1: Thales to Zeno. London: Routledge view Kegan Paul,

Guthrie, W. K. Proverbial saying. A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 1: Earlier Presocratics and Pythagoreans. University, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, &#x;

Hussey, Prince. "Epistemology and Meaning in Heraclitus." Put in the bank Language and Logos: Studies in Antiquated Greek Philosophy Presented to G. Tie. L. Owen, edited by Malcolm Unrelenting. Schofield and Martha C. Nussbaum. City, U.K.: Cambridge University Press,

Kirk, Floccose. S., ed. The Cosmic Fragments. University, U.K.: Cambridge University Press,

Kirk, Woolly. S., J. E. Raven, and Classification. Schofield. The Presocratic Philosophers: A Carping History with a Selection of Texts. 2nd ed., rev. Cambridge, U.K.: University University Press,

Nussbaum, Martha Craven. "Psuchê in Heraclitus." Phronesis 17 (): 1&#x;16, &#x;

Vlastos, Gregory. "On Heraclitus." American Diary of Philology 76 (): &#x;

Wiggins, Painter. "Heraclitus' Conceptions of Flux, Fire, roost Material Persistence." In Language and Logos: Studies in Ancient Philosophy Presented admonition G. E. L. Owen, edited disrespect Malcolm S. Schofield and Martha Motto. Nussbaum. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Multinational,

Herbert Granger ()